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Day five

On 25 March 1965, the fifth and final day, marchers left the City of St. Jude and walked through Montgomery to the Alabama State Capitol, completing the 54-mile route from Selma. The march had begun on 21 March with more than 8,000 people; a court order had limited the narrow two-lane stretch to 300.

For the final procession and rally the crowd expanded to roughly 25,000 — sources say variously nearly, about, or over that figure.

The route passed the bus stop associated with Rosa Parks and King's former church on Dexter Avenue.

A stage on a flatbed truck

Governor George Wallace barred the demonstrators from the Capitol steps and did not receive their petition. Speakers used a flatbed truck in front of the building instead.

Martin Luther King Jr. delivered the address known as "Our God Is Marching On" or "How Long? Not Long," opening by recalling marchers who had slept in mud, been drenched by rain and arrived with sore feet. Ralph Abernathy, John Lewis, Fred Shuttlesworth and Rosa Parks also spoke.

"Successfully" means the protected march reached Montgomery. It did not mean the petition was accepted.

Highway 80 that night

After the rally dispersed, Ku Klux Klan members murdered Viola Liuzzo, a 39-year-old mother of five, while she was helping transport participants along Highway 80.

The march had gone ahead because Judge Frank M. Johnson Jr. ruled on 17 March that it could, and President Johnson federalized the Alabama National Guard after Wallace declined to provide protection.

No law passed that day. The voting-rights bill had been introduced on 17 March and was signed on 6 August 1965.

2,221 to 88

Meeting in St Peter's Basilica on 28 October 1965, the Second Vatican Council gave Nostra aetate its final approval by 2,221 votes to 88. Pope Paul VI approved and promulgated the declaration in union with the council fathers that day.

The Holy See's 2015 anniversary bulletin reports one null ballot; a peer-reviewed historical study reports three. Both agree on the substantive tally.

This was the culmination of a conciliar process, not a papal text issued without a vote.

What the promulgated text says

It stated that Jesus's Passion could not be charged indiscriminately to all Jews then living or to Jews of the present, and that Jews should not be portrayed as rejected or accursed by God.

It condemned hatred, persecution and antisemitism against Jews, rejected discrimination based on race, colour, condition or religion, and encouraged dialogue and cooperation with adherents of other religions.

It is not read correctly as saying no Jewish authorities were involved in Jesus's death; its operative claim is about collective and inherited guilt.

It did not start out this wide

The initiative traces to Jules Isaac, the French Jewish historian whose wife and daughter were killed in the Holocaust, and who at 81 brought Pope John XXIII a documentary dossier urging reform of Christian teaching about Jews. John assigned the material to Cardinal Augustin Bea's Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity.

What began as a proposed statement about Jews survived attempts to remove it, abbreviate it and fold it into another council text. Cardinal Cicognani directed that it become a broader declaration, and Yves Congar helped draft the additions while preserving the rejection of collective guilt.

The final document addressed Hinduism and Buddhism, devoted a section to Islam, and then treated the Church's relationship with the Jewish people.

Four cases, one opinion

On 13 June 1966 the U.S. Supreme Court issued a 5–4 decision in Miranda v. Arizona — an opinion that actually resolved four consolidated custodial-interrogation cases from Arizona, New York, California and the federal courts.

Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote for a majority joined by Hugo Black, William O. Douglas, William J. Brennan Jr. and Abe Fortas. John Marshall Harlan II, Potter Stewart and Byron White dissented; Tom C. Clark dissented in three cases while concurring in the result in California v. Stewart.

The Court reversed the judgments in Miranda, Vignera and Westover, and affirmed California's reversal in Stewart.

What the rule requires

Prosecutors could not use statements resulting from custodial interrogation unless effective safeguards protected the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination.

Absent a fully effective equivalent, a person in custody had to be told before interrogation of the right to remain silent, the possible courtroom use of statements, the right to have counsel present, and the right to appointed counsel if indigent. The prosecution also had to show a knowing and intelligent waiver.

The opinion did not mandate one word-for-word incantation, and it expressly left volunteered statements and general on-the-scene questioning outside the holding.

Miranda did not walk free

The ruling governs admissibility, not arrest procedure. It does not require warnings before every police question — only before custodial interrogation.

Warren answered predictions that warnings would cripple policing by pointing to the FBI, which already warned suspects about silence and counsel.

Ernesto Miranda was not acquitted. Arizona retried him without the confession in 1967 and convicted him again.

An accident in Per Andersen's laboratory

In 1966, beginning independent doctoral work in Per Andersen's University of Oslo laboratory, Terje Lømo stimulated the perforant-path input to dentate granule cells in anesthetized rabbits. His project concerned that pathway, dentate physiology and the already-described phenomenon of frequency potentiation.

Testing responses at longer intervals after stimulus trains, he found something he had not gone looking for: brief trains increased the efficiency of transmission at perforant-path–granule-cell synapses, and the enhancement could persist for hours.

No exact calendar day for the observation is established in the consulted histories; only the year is securely supported.

An abstract nobody noticed

Lømo reported the preliminary finding in a 1966 abstract and a short presentation to the Scandinavian Physiological Society in Turku, suggesting the effect might represent a form of synaptic memory.

It attracted little attention and was not immediately pursued. The experiments later failed in the same Oslo laboratory and preparation, which helps explain the delay.

Timothy Bliss arrived in Oslo in 1968 and persuaded Lømo to run the systematic experiments; they were performed in 1968–1969 and published in 1973.

What the observation was not

It was an observation and a brief abstract, not the canonical full paper — seven years separate the two.

Lømo recorded extracellular population responses from dentate granule cells, not the behaviour of a single isolated postsynaptic neuron.

The name came afterwards. "Long-term potentiation" was applied retrospectively, and firsthand histories dispute any single clean naming moment.

Two states at once

On 10 February 1967 the Minnesota and Nevada legislatures both ratified the proposed Twenty-Fifth Amendment, supplying the thirty-seventh and thirty-eighth of the ratifications required from fifty states.

Minnesota's research office says the time of day of the two votes is unclear and credits them jointly, so neither can safely be called the decisive state. Minnesota's House had approved on 17 January by 124–7; its Senate finished on the 10th, 64–0.

Thirty-six states had already ratified since Congress submitted the amendment on 6 July 1965, by a Senate vote of 68–5.

What the amendment set up

It clarified that a vice president becomes president after a president's death, resignation or removal, and created a procedure for filling a vice-presidential vacancy.

It also established voluntary and involuntary procedures for transferring presidential powers during inability. Section 4 does not remove a president: it transfers powers and duties to the vice president as Acting President, with Congress resolving a contested case.

No officeholder changed that day; what changed was that the Constitution now contained the procedures.

Certified thirteen days later

Reaching three-fourths made the amendment valid on 10 February. Lawson B. Knott Jr., the Administrator of General Services, certified that result on 23 February, and the certification appeared in the Federal Register on the 25th.

Some older compilations treat 23 February as the effective date. Congress.gov and the National Archives identify 10 February as the ratification date, with certification a later ministerial confirmation.

President Lyndon Johnson did not sign the amendment into the Constitution — Article V amendments do not require presidential approval — and the measure that prevailed was led and principally authored by Senator Birch Bayh.

Two orders, 28 June 1967

On 28 June 1967, using authority the Knesset had enacted the previous day, Levi Eshkol's government issued an order applying Israeli law, jurisdiction and administration to a defined area encompassing Jordanian East Jerusalem, the Old City and surrounding West Bank territory.

The interior minister issued a parallel order enlarging the Jerusalem municipality to include the designated territory. The Knesset's own figures put the municipal area at 38,100 dunams before and 110,000 after.

The 27th and the 28th are routinely conflated: the enabling laws were passed on 27 June, and the territorial orders were issued on the 28th.

What the map took in

The designated area included the Old City, Sur Baher, Sheikh Jarrah, Kalandia airport, Mount Scopus and its vicinity, and Shuafat. Most of the addition was surrounding West Bank land that had never been inside the Jordanian municipality.

The UN representative in Jerusalem reported roughly 70,000 people in the designated area, about 28,000 of them in the Old City.

They came under Israeli civil and municipal administration without becoming citizens: East Jerusalem residents were classified as permanent residents, able to vote in municipal but not Knesset elections.

Whose word for it

Israel described the measures as legal and municipal integration, and the orders avoided the word annexation. The United Nations, the International Court of Justice and most states have treated their effect as annexation of occupied territory.

"Reunification" is Israel's official characterization; "occupation" and "annexation" are the terms used by the UN and the ICJ. One week later the General Assembly adopted Resolution 2253 by 99–0 with 20 abstentions, calling on Israel to rescind measures altering Jerusalem's status.

The 1980 Basic Law did not begin Israeli legal and municipal control there; it proclaimed complete and united Jerusalem as Israel's capital, thirteen years after the control was imposed.

A mark on chart paper

On 6 August 1967 a chart recorder attached to Cambridge's Four-Acre Array registered a signal from the radio source later designated CP 1919 and PSR B1919+21. An original chart carrying that date survives in the Antony Hewish papers.

Jocelyn Bell, the postgraduate student responsible for inspecting the survey charts, marked the anomalous trace for attention. The array had been built to study interplanetary scintillation, not to look for pulsars.

Its pulsed nature was not recognized that day.

The pulses came in November

The trace returned from the same fixed celestial position on later passes, which prompted Bell to retrieve earlier records and persuade her supervisor that this was not ordinary terrestrial interference.

The regular sequence of pulses roughly one and a third seconds apart was not obtained until a faster recording on 28 November 1967.

The "Little Green Men" label belongs to that later stage, after the signal's regularity had been established — it was not the annotation on the August chart.

Whose discovery, and when

Cambridge distinguishes the first detection on 6 August from the first observation of resolved pulses on 28 November, so calling August the discovery date holds only under the first definition. The surviving chart proves when the instrument recorded the signal, not the day Bell appreciated its importance; reconstructions place that recognition later in August.

The listing gives Hewish too direct a role on the day. He was Bell's supervisor and central to the investigation, but the artifact and Bell's own accounts credit her with inspecting and recognizing the anomaly.

Nothing was announced in 1967. Hewish, Bell, John Pilkington, Paul Scott and Robin Collins published in Nature on 24 February 1968.

Incorporated in Mountain View

Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore incorporated a new semiconductor venture on 18 July 1968 under the temporary legal name NM Electronics, organized in Mountain View, California.

The plan was to pursue new semiconductor technologies, concentrating first on semiconductor memory as an alternative to magnetic-core memory. Moore's idea for such a company reportedly emerged while Noyce was mowing his lawn.

Noyce and Moore each put in $245,000; Arthur Rock added $10,000 and raised a further $2.5 million through convertible debentures, largely on the two men's reputations and before there were products or facilities.

The name came later, and so did the office

Intel was not on the incorporation papers. Noyce and Moore chose it shortly afterwards as a contraction of "integrated electronics" and bought the naming rights from Intelco, a hotel company, for $15,000.

Nor did work begin that day. The company opened on 1 August in a conference room in a leased Union Carbide building on Middlefield Road, with about twelve engineers.

Applying the Intel name to the 18 July entity is understandable shorthand, but it is not what the paperwork said.

Two founders, one financier

Intel's official history names Noyce and Moore as its founders, describing Rock as financier and chairman and Andrew Grove as an early leader who joined almost immediately.

Noyce and Moore were two of the eight engineers who left Shockley Semiconductor to establish Fairchild in 1957. Rock was their financier — not one of that group and not a Fairchild employee who left in 1968.

They had gone because they believed Fairchild's parent company was not reinvesting enough of the semiconductor division's profits in new research.

Outside the Rawalpindi Polytechnic

On 7 November 1968, Rawalpindi students protesting after customs officials confiscated purchases they had brought back from Landi Kotal assembled and marched as the opposition politician Zulfikar Ali Bhutto arrived in the city.

Police used batons and tear gas, then opened fire near the Rawalpindi Polytechnic Institute, killing a first-year student named Abdul Hamid — also rendered Abdul Hameed — reported to be 17.

Bhutto learned of the shooting at Rawalpindi's Intercontinental Hotel and later went to Pindi Gheb to offer condolences to Hamid's family.

Not quite the start

The listing calls this the start of the 1968 movement. The date of the shooting is secure, but the claim is disputed: the National Students Federation had already held its first Demands Week demonstration in Karachi on 7 October.

What 7 November did was transform a local student dispute into serious anti-government agitation. Clashes followed Bhutto's route toward Lahore, and the government arrested him and other opposition figures on 13 November.

Sources also conflict on the day's death toll. Participant-informed and book-length accounts identify one named victim; several later summaries claim three deaths without consistently naming the others.

What followed, and what did not

Ayub Khan had ruled since the 1958 coup and was promoting his tenth year as a "Decade of Development." He resigned on 25 March 1969.

That did not restore civilian democracy. Yahya Khan imposed martial law, abrogated the constitution and dissolved the legislatures.

Nor did the uprising make Bangladesh's creation inevitable: the 1970 election crisis, the refusal to transfer power, the 1971 military crackdown, civil war and Indian intervention were separate later developments.

1:15 a.m. at 51–53 Christopher Street

At about 1:15 a.m. on 28 June 1969, undercover officers from New York's Public Morals squad raided the Stonewall Inn after witnessing unlicensed alcohol sales — part of a June crackdown on LGBTQ bars.

Patrons refused police demands that some of them submit to identification and bathroom sex checks. Customers released from the bar did not scatter: they joined the people gathering outside and in Christopher Park, cheering friends who emerged under police escort.

The park sat opposite the inn, near two subway stations and pay phones, which helped word of the raid travel.

The police locked themselves in

As officers tried to remove those arrested, the crowd shouted for freedom and threw pennies, bottles, paving stones and bricks. The police retreated into the bar and locked themselves inside.

Demonstrators broke windows and used an uprooted parking meter against the doors, and a small fire started inside before the city's riot-control force arrived around 3 a.m.

The first night subsided about 4:30 a.m., with thirteen arrests and no fatality among police or demonstrators.

Six days, and no first brick

It did not end that morning. Crowds returned and confrontations continued on subsequent nights through 3 July.

Witnesses disagree about exactly which person or action turned the crowd's anger into violence, and retrospective claims crediting one famous individual with throwing a "first brick" cannot be established from the contemporary record.

Stonewall also did not create LGBTQ activism from nothing: homophile organizations and earlier acts of resistance came before it.

9:47 a.m. in Hanoi

Ho Chi Minh, president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, died in Hanoi at 9:47 a.m. on 2 September 1969, aged 79. Official Vietnamese accounts describe a sudden heart attack ending a period of serious illness; they variously render the immediate medical cause as heart attack, heart failure or cardiac arrest.

The date carried its own weight. It was Vietnam’s National Day, exactly 24 years to the day after he had proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Hanoi on 2 September 1945.

The announcement said 3 September

The leadership withheld the real date. The official declaration gave his time of death as 9:47 a.m. on 3 September, chosen so that it would not coincide with National Day.

The Politburo publicly acknowledged the alteration in 1989. A contemporary newspaper or reference work giving 3 September is therefore reproducing the government’s deliberately altered announcement, not an independent record.

Seven days of mourning, three weeks without a president

National mourning ran seven days, 4–10 September 1969. The presidency stayed vacant until the National Assembly elected Vice President Tôn Đức Thắng on 23 September.

Policy did not swing with the death: North Vietnam was already run by a collective leadership in which First Secretary Lê Duẩn held substantial authority.

Ho had asked to be cremated and his ashes distributed by region. His body was embalmed instead, and later placed in a mausoleum.

Two companion papers, pages 930 and 935

On 20 October 1969, Physical Review Letters carried two companion papers from the MIT–SLAC collaboration on high-energy, highly inelastic electron–proton scattering, back to back in volume 23.

The first, “High-Energy Inelastic Scattering at 6° and 10°,” reported the measured cross sections. The second, “Observed Behavior of Highly Inelastic Electron-Proton Scattering,” estimated the proton structure function W₂ and reported scaling behaviour within experimental error.

Electrons that bounced too often

Collisions transferring large energy happened far more frequently than a featureless proton allowed — by an APS summary’s account, 10 to 100 times more often than predicted, over an electron-energy range of 7 to 17 GeV.

That pointed to small, hard, point-like charged constituents inside the proton rather than a smeared-out charge distribution. James Bjorken had predicted the scaling behaviour the data were tested against; Richard Feynman read the same picture as nearly independent constituents he called partons.

What the papers stopped short of saying

Neither paper announced that the constituents had been identified as quarks. Quarks had already been proposed on paper by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964, and the match between partons and quarks firmed up through later exchange between experiment and theory.

The decisive detector readings were also older than the publication: the runs were made principally in 1967–68. October 20 is the date the analysis reached the refereed literature.

Jerome Friedman, Henry Kendall and Richard Taylor received the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physics for the deep-inelastic investigations.