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November 18, 1903

Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty

At about 6:40 in the evening, a French citizen signed away sweeping powers in Panama — before Panama's own commissioners could reach the negotiating table.

Signed at 6:40 in the evening

On 18 November 1903, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay and Philippe Bunau-Varilla signed the Isthmian Canal Convention in Washington. Bunau-Varilla was a French citizen and canal promoter serving as Panama's envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary; no Panamanian citizen signed.

The reported signing time was 6:40 p.m. President Theodore Roosevelt was notified, and Bunau-Varilla cabled Panama that evening.

The republic whose independence the treaty guaranteed had been recognised by the United States twelve days earlier, on 6 November.

What the wording actually granted

Panama granted perpetual use, occupation and control of a strip ten miles wide — five miles either side of the canal centre line, extending three marine miles beyond the mean low-water mark at each end.

The text did not convey ordinary ownership or expressly transfer sovereignty. It granted powers the United States would exercise as if it were sovereign, to the exclusion of Panamanian authority.

Panama City and Colón were left outside the zone, but the treaty still gave the United States sanitary and public-order powers inside them.

Signed is not in force

Article XXVI required ratification by both governments and an exchange of ratifications, so the signatures put nothing into effect. Panama approved the convention on 2 December 1903; the ratifications were exchanged and the treaty proclaimed on 26 February 1904.

The promised $10,000,000 in U.S. gold coin was payable upon that exchange, not at the signing table, along with a $250,000 annual payment beginning nine years later.

The separately authorised $40 million concerned the New Panama Canal Company's property, in a transaction that occurred in 1904 — it was not a payment to Panama.

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February 8, 1904

Battle of Port Arthur

Eighteen torpedoes produced three hits — and those three hits disabled two Russian battleships and a cruiser without sinking any of them.

Destroyers out at six, torpedoes after midnight

At 6 p.m. on 8 February 1904, Japanese destroyer flotillas headed toward Port Arthur. Their torpedo attacks came after midnight, on 9 February by local Japanese time, while many Russian officers were ashore at a ball and some sailors were asleep with their clothes removed.

Torpedoes damaged the battleships Tsesarevich and Retvizan and the protected cruiser Pallada. All three stayed afloat, though the damaged ships grounded trying to reach shelter — Retvizan obstructing the harbour passage behind it.

A U.S. Navy historical study counts 18 torpedoes fired for three hits; other published accounts give 16.

Tōgō comes in by daylight

On the morning of 9 February, Vice Admiral Dewa Shigetō reconnoitred the anchorage from roughly 7,000 yards and identified twelve large ships and smaller vessels. Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō then brought the Combined Fleet in for a gun engagement.

Mikasa opened fire at 11:55 a.m. at about 8,500 metres. Russian ships and shore batteries replied, and the Japanese divisions withdrew between approximately 12:20 and 12:45.

No Russian capital ship was sunk. The squadron was impaired but not destroyed, and the daylight exchange was indecisive.

What a one-day label hides

The conventional "8 February" compresses an operation that crossed midnight. A Russian report quoted in the Japanese official account dates the attack 26 January / 8 February, reflecting Russia's Julian-calendar usage.

Two familiar claims do not survive the sources. Dewa did not report the Russian fleet paralysed — he reported visible damage, mostly anchored ships and an opportunity to attack; and the Russian captain's report reproduced in the Japanese official account says the ships had not spread their torpedo nets, so torpedoes cannot have tangled in them.

Japan and Russia issued their formal declarations of war on 10 February, after the fighting had already begun.

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Traditional date. This date is the conventional one, not one fixed by a contemporary record.

What the sources leave uncertain

Modern histories conventionally date the battle February 8–9. Japanese operational timings place the torpedo launches after midnight on February 9, although the flotillas sailed on February 8.
A Russian report quoted in the Japanese official account dates the attack January 26/February 8, reflecting Russia’s Julian-calendar usage and contemporary conversion conventions. A one-day date label therefore obscures both the midnight boundary and the calendar difference.
Published accounts differ on whether 16 or 18 torpedoes were launched; the U.S. Navy historical study consulted here gives 18.

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February 23, 1904

Panama Canal Zone

Sixty-six senators voted yes and fourteen voted no — and the United States still did not control the canal site when the chamber adjourned.

A 66–14 roll call, and nothing handed over

On 23 February 1904 the U.S. Senate voted to advise and consent to ratification of the Hay–Bunau-Varilla canal convention. The roll call was 66–14, satisfying the Constitution's two-thirds requirement for senators present.

The Senate acted by adopting a ratification resolution. It did not itself complete presidential ratification, put the treaty into force, pay Panama, or transfer the Canal Zone that day.

Panama's provisional government had already approved the convention on 2 December 1903.

Four dates, not one

President Theodore Roosevelt performed the United States' formal act of ratification on 25 February. The ratifications were exchanged and the treaty proclaimed on 26 February, which is when it became internationally operative.

Physical possession of the canal site and the French company's property followed on 4 May 1904. At that handover, Lieutenant Mark Brooke received keys to storehouses and Ancon Hospital.

Saying the Senate "ratified" the treaty is common shorthand; its constitutional action was advice and consent.

The $10 million that stayed put

The approved treaty made $10,000,000 in gold payable upon the exchange of ratifications, with a $250,000 annual payment beginning nine years after that exchange. Nothing was paid out on 23 February.

The often-quoted $40 million was a different transaction: the purchase of the New Panama Canal Company's property, not payment to Panama for the zone.

The listing's claim that $10 million bought control on this date collapses a Senate vote, a presidential ratification, an exchange of instruments and a physical handover into one event.

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August 11, 1904

Battle of Waterberg

Trotha planned an encirclement. By the next morning the people and cattle inside it had gone out through a gap reported as nine miles wide.

The encirclement that did not close

On 11 August 1904, German colonial forces under Lieutenant General Lothar von Trotha attacked the Ovaherero concentration around Ohamakari and the Waterberg in German South West Africa, now Namibia. Approximately 60,000 Ovaherero men, women and children were gathered there with their herds; about 6,000 were armed, with little ammunition and no artillery.

Trotha attempted a concentric encirclement meant to destroy the Ovaherero force. The southeastern element under Hermann von der Heyde failed to close its assigned sector, and the principal fighting fell on the southern and southeastern approaches.

By the following morning the Germans found the Ovaherero gone, through a gap a military study reports as roughly nine miles wide between the Müller and von der Heyde detachments.

A field held, an annihilation missed

German troops occupied the ground and organised Ovaherero resistance at that concentration ended. The annihilating battle Trotha had assembled reinforcements for did not happen.

Pursuit was ordered on 13 August, and orders on 16 and 26 August established cordons at watering places, pushing and confining refugees deeper into the Omaheke.

Scholars agree the pursuit and denial of water were genocidal; they debate whether driving the Ovaherero into the waterless Omaheke was the plan before the battle or a lethal opportunity taken after the encirclement failed.

Figures that need labels

German strength is counted two ways. Numbers near 1,500 describe rifle-bearing combat troops or infantry, while approximately 4,000 describes the wider force in the operation, which brought 36 cannon and 14 machine guns.

Berlin replaced Theodor Leutwein as military commander, not as governor; he remained nominal governor while Trotha controlled war policy. Some scholarly accounts date the battle 11–12 August, because the breakout and the discovery of the empty encirclement ran into the next morning.

Naming 11 August as the instant the genocide began is too categorical: the genocide of the Ovaherero and Nama is dated 1904–1908, and the Nama were not the opposing force in this battle.

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What the sources leave uncertain

August 11 is the standard date of the decisive engagement; some scholarly accounts describe the battle as August 11–12 because the breakout and discovery of the empty encirclement extended into the following morning.
Sources count German strength differently. Figures near 1,500 usually describe rifle-bearing combat troops or infantry, while approximately 4,000 describes the wider German force involved in the operation.
Scholars agree that subsequent German pursuit and denial of water were genocidal. They debate whether driving the Ovaherero into the waterless Omaheke was already the precise plan before the battle or a lethal opportunity exploited after the encirclement failed.

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May 11, 1905

Brownian motion

A journal receipt stamp — not a laboratory demonstration — is the entire documented event of the day.

A receipt stamp in Leipzig

On 11 May 1905, Annalen der Physik recorded receiving a manuscript from Albert Einstein, then a technical expert at the Swiss patent office in Bern, titled "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen."

That receipt is the documented event. The publication record establishes 11 May as the journal's receipt date, not necessarily the day Einstein put the manuscript in the mail, and it is not the publication date.

The paper appeared later that year on pages 549–560 of Annalen der Physik, volume 17.

What the manuscript predicted

Einstein argued that microscopic particles suspended in a liquid would undergo observable, irregular motion as a consequence of molecular-kinetic theory. He supplied a quantitative relation between elapsed time and mean displacement.

In a worked example, a particle 0.001 millimetre in diameter was predicted to have a mean displacement of about 6 micrometres in one minute. He proposed using measurements of that motion to determine Avogadro's number.

The work grew out of his just-completed doctoral dissertation on molecular dimensions, whose treatment of diffusion supplied a formula the new paper needed.

Einstein hedged where later accounts do not

The paper was theoretical. Einstein did not conduct the confirming particle-tracking experiments that later accounts attach to him, and he wrote only that the predicted motion might be identical with the phenomenon called Brownian motion — not that he had explained an already-identified effect.

The objects in Robert Brown's famous observations were minute particles released from Clarkia pulchella pollen, not whole pollen grains. Brown acknowledged earlier observers, and his account of observations made in 1827 was published in 1828.

Einstein's paper ended by hoping that an experimenter would soon solve the problem he had posed.

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What the sources leave uncertain

The publication record establishes May 11 as the journal’s receipt date, not necessarily the day Einstein placed the manuscript in the mail.
Einstein initially wrote only that the predicted motion might be identical to the phenomenon called Brownian motion; he did not present himself as having experimentally identified it.

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June 7, 1905

Dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden

Norway's 91-year union with Sweden was dissolved grammatically, inside a subordinate clause. The resolution passed unanimously and without debate.

A resignation, then a resolution

On 7 June 1905, Prime Minister Christian Michelsen appeared before the Storting and reported that his government had resigned. King Oscar II had refused to sanction the Norwegian Consulate Act and had declared himself unable to form another Norwegian ministry.

The Storting, with Carl Berner presiding, unanimously and without debate authorised the resigned ministry to exercise the constitutional powers assigned to the king.

Its reasoning was that because Oscar II had ceased functioning as Norway's king, the union with Sweden under one king was dissolved.

And would His Majesty please send a prince

The same sitting approved an address asking Oscar II to permit a prince of the House of Bernadotte to take the Norwegian throne, and adopted a proclamation to the Norwegian people.

The outgoing Michelsen ministry began exercising the king's Norwegian powers immediately. Norwegian generals swore loyalty on 8 June, and union-marked flags were replaced on state ships and buildings on 9 June.

Sweden had not yet recognised the dissolution.

Not yet independence, and not the Congress of Vienna

The listing's "full independence" overshoots what 7 June accomplished. The date and the parliamentary action are secure; what was not yet secure was legal and diplomatic finality, since a referendum in August, the Karlstad negotiations, and Swedish recognition on 26 October 1905 all still lay ahead.

Nor did the union follow from the Congress of Vienna. The decisive 1814 steps were the Treaty of Kiel in January, Norway's own constitution, a short Swedish–Norwegian war, the Convention of Moss and a revised constitution — and Norway kept its constitution, parliament and substantial internal autonomy throughout, sharing only a monarch and foreign policy.

The union had lasted 91 years, from 1814 to 1905.

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What the sources leave uncertain

The date and parliamentary action are secure. The qualification concerns legal and diplomatic finality: June 7 was Norway’s unilateral declaration, while Sweden formally recognized Norwegian independence on October 26, 1905.

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August 26, 1905

Gjøa expedition

The first outsider to congratulate Amundsen was a San Francisco whaling captain sailing toward him from the opposite end of the passage — and nowhere near Point Barrow.

A sail coming from the west

On the morning of 26 August 1905, in Amundsen Gulf, Roald Amundsen's expedition aboard the 47-ton sloop Gjøa sighted an American whaling schooner approaching from the west.

She was the San Francisco whaler Charles Hansson, commanded by Captain James McKenna. McKenna congratulated Amundsen on connecting the Northwest Passage route and supplied the isolated seven-man party with news from outside.

Because Charles Hansson had entered from the Pacific side, the encounter confirmed to Amundsen that Gjøa had linked its east-to-west route with waters already reached from Bering Strait.

The listed place is the wrong place

The meeting happened in the Canadian Arctic, not near Point Barrow, Alaska. Gjøa passed Point Barrow during the resumed voyage in 1906.

Confirmation did not end the voyage either. By 2 September ice had stopped Gjøa at King Point near Herschel Island, forcing a third Arctic winter; the vessel did not reach Nome until August 1906.

Twelve ships were subsequently icebound near Herschel Island.

Which day counts as completing the passage

Sources pick different milestones. The Fram Museum treats 17 August — when Gjøa reached the easternmost point previously attained from Bering Strait — as the completion; other narratives emphasise the 26 August whaler encounter, or the arrival at Nome.

Amundsen's was the first complete ship navigation of the passage in a single vessel and expedition. Robert McClure's earlier party had traversed the region but abandoned its ship and continued by sledge, and the route Gjøa used was not commercially practical: at points barely one foot of water remained beneath her keel.

Nor was the party moving through empty country. Netsilik Inuit at Gjøa Haven taught expedition members about skin clothing, hunting and dogs, and Inuit communities materially assisted the expedition.

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What the sources leave uncertain

August 26 is securely attested as the date Gjøa sighted Charles Hansson.
Sources use different milestones for “completion.” The Fram Museum calls August 17—when Gjøa reached the easternmost point previously attained from Bering Strait—the completion of the passage; other narratives emphasize the confirming whaler encounter on August 26 or the vessel’s arrival in Nome in 1906.
The encounter occurred in Amundsen Gulf in the Canadian Arctic, not near Point Barrow, Alaska.

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September 2, 1905

Imperial examination

The court's own diagnosis was blunt: after about 1,300 years, the examinations had become exercises in empty rhetorical composition.

Six viceroys ask the throne to stop it at once

On 2 September 1905 — the fourth day of the eighth lunar month in the thirty-first year of the Guangxu reign — the Qing court issued an edict approving a memorial from six senior officials who sought immediate abolition of the traditional civil-service examinations.

The six were Yuan Shikai, Zhang Zhidong, Zhao Erxun, Zhou Fu, Cen Chunxuan and Duanfang. Their argument was that students would keep preparing for the classical examinations rather than attend modern schools for as long as the old path to office remained open.

Yinchang, sometimes listed among them, was not one of the six.

What the edict actually ordered

The edict discontinued the provincial and metropolitan degree examinations beginning with the 1906 cycle, and also stopped the provincial examinations for the licentiate degree. The decision was taken in 1905; the cycles ceased from 1906, so no examination was interrupted on the day itself.

The court said that retaining the old examinations caused families and students to hold back from the new schools, and criticised the examinations as exercises in empty rhetorical composition.

It preserved routes for people who already held examination degrees and ordered officials to expand schools and distribute textbooks.

What abolition did not do

Ending the examinations did not abolish the Qing bureaucracy or strip existing degree holders of their status. Examinations were an important route into office but not the only one — purchase, hereditary privilege and recommendation also existed.

The late-imperial sequence ran through local, provincial, metropolitan and palace stages rather than three interchangeable levels, and the system had developed over centuries instead of springing from one founding act in the Sui dynasty.

The edict's immediate goal was to remove an obstacle to the new schools, not to abandon examination as a method of educational selection forever.

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What the sources leave uncertain

The date is securely documented as September 2, 1905, corresponding to the fourth day of the eighth lunar month in the thirty-first year of the Guangxu reign.
The edict was issued in 1905 but specified that the principal examination cycles would cease beginning in 1906; “abolished on September 2” describes the policy decision, not an examination interrupted that day.

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December 30, 1906

All-India Muslim League

December 27 to 29 were set aside for education. December 30 was reserved, explicitly, for politics.

A day reserved for politics

On 30 December 1906, after the twentieth All-India Muhammadan Educational Conference had ended, delegates reassembled at Shah Bagh in Dacca for a political meeting. The day had been reserved expressly for that purpose.

On Khwaja Salimullah's motion, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk was chosen to chair. Salimullah then moved the resolution creating an organisation called the All-India Muslim League; Hakim Ajmal Khan seconded it, and the meeting carried it unanimously.

A provisional committee was established, with Viqar-ul-Mulk and Mohsin-ul-Mulk as joint secretaries, to prepare the League's constitution within four months.

Three objects, none of them a separate state

The new body adopted three immediate objects: encouraging loyalty to the British government; protecting and advancing Indian Muslims' political rights and interests; and avoiding hostility toward other communities without sacrificing the first two.

Nothing in them called for Pakistan or an independent Muslim state. Separate electorates were embodied later, in the Indian Councils Act of 1909, and the Pakistan campaign came decades after that.

The League ended its founding day with a provisional committee and an unfinished constitution.

What the standard account gets wrong

Aga Khan III was not appointed honorary president at the founding. The League's reproduced proceedings record his formal election as president at Aligarh on 18 March 1908.

The League was not created during the educational conference's ordinary proceedings; the political meeting followed after it closed. The venue in those proceedings is Shah Bagh, which modern historical listings commonly identify as Ishrat Manzil — not the riverside Ahsan Manzil palace in Old Dhaka.

Salimullah unquestionably moved the founding resolution, but his earlier circulated scheme was called the Muslim All-India Confederacy, and accounts differ over who proposed the name the meeting adopted.

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What the sources leave uncertain

The date and Shah Bagh location are well supported, but modern accounts conflict over the building. The reproduced proceedings say Shah Bagh; some accounts identify the Shahbagh garden-house as Ishrat/Israt Manzil, while others incorrectly or loosely name Ahsan Manzil, a distinct Nawab palace in Old Dhaka.
Attribution of the exact party name varies in later accounts. Salimullah unquestionably moved the founding resolution and had earlier circulated a scheme called the Muslim All-India Confederacy; some histories also credit Mian Muhammad Shafi in the naming discussion.

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March 15, 1907

1907 Finnish parliamentary election

Sixty-two women ran and nineteen won. But the boast in the listing — first national election with women candidates — belongs to Australia in 1903.

Two days of voting, sometimes reached on skis

Voting began across the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland on 15 March 1907 and continued on 16 March, in the first election for its new 200-seat unicameral Parliament. People in rural districts sometimes travelled to polling places on skis over hardened early-spring snow.

The poll put the 1906 system of equal national suffrage and candidacy into practice for women and men aged 24 or older, landless workers included. Turnout was reported as 70.7 percent, with no reported disorder or election irregularities.

The Social Democratic Party won 80 of the 200 seats, making representatives of workers and landless people the largest group in the chamber.

The world first, stated precisely

Sixty-two women stood as candidates and 19 won seats — the first women elected to any national parliament. Among them were a former servant, seamstresses, teachers and prominent women's-rights organisers.

The listing's claim of the first national assembly election with women candidates does not hold: four women contested Australia's federal election in 1903, though none won.

Finland's defensible firsts are electing women to a national parliament, and being the first European polity to grant women equal national voting and candidacy rights.

"Universal" came with nine exceptions

The minimum voting age was 24, and nine disqualification categories excluded roughly 10 to 15 percent of otherwise voting-age people, including some poor-relief recipients. The claim that all adult citizens could vote and run is inaccurate.

Finland was still an autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire. Finnish reform bodies and the Diet prepared and approved the Parliament Act; Nicholas II ratified it on 20 July 1906 and retained authority to approve laws and dissolve Parliament.

He used the dissolution power from 1908; the military-dominated "Sabre Senates" were appointed only from late 1909.

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What the sources leave uncertain

The listed date is only the first polling day; voting continued on March 16.
“Universal suffrage” is the standard historical description, but it did not mean every adult could vote. The minimum age was 24, and nine disqualification categories excluded roughly 10–15 percent of otherwise voting-age people, including some poor-relief recipients.
Finland was the first place to elect women to a national parliament and the first European polity to give women equal national voting and candidacy rights. It was not the first national election with women candidates: four women contested Australia’s federal election in 1903 but none won.

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October 17, 1907

Clifden Wireless Station

A reported 10,000 words crossed on opening day — even though the stations could handle only one message at a time, and every word was Morse.

Morse across the Atlantic, one message at a time

On 17 October 1907, Marconi's stations at Clifden in Ireland and Marconi Towers near Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, officially opened a transatlantic wireless service. The two sites were more than 3,000 kilometres apart.

The traffic was a limited press service in wireless telegraphy — Morse-code press dispatches and congratulatory telegrams, not voice or broadcast programming. A reported 10,000 words crossed in both directions that day, although the stations could handle only one message at a time and transmission was slow.

Guglielmo Marconi supervised operations at Glace Bay; an archival photograph shows him waiting in the receiving room while James A. Holmes listened for Clifden through a weak spell in the signal.

Who sent what

Leonard R. Johnstone worked the Glace Bay transmitter for the official messages to Clifden, and W. S. Entwistle directed the Irish station's opening-day transmissions.

The dispatches included one from Lord Avebury to The New York Times, and a telegram from Canada's governor-general, Earl Grey, congratulating King Edward VII on the new link. The King answered Earl Grey by the same route on 18 October.

The Glace Bay receiving room used seven Fleming valves and a makeshift tuning coil assembled from the linings of two ten-inch induction coils.

Not the first signal, and not yet ordinary telegrams

This was not the first time a radio signal crossed the Atlantic. Marconi's one-way Newfoundland experiment took place in 1901, and messages crossed from the Canadian side in 1902.

Nor was the service unrestricted. A 1908 Marconi-company history describes 17 October as the start of a limited press-message service and dates ordinary messages to 3 February 1908; Parks Canada describes 17 October as the official opening for public use.

The stations were linked to London, Montreal and New York by land telegraph lines, so an end-to-end newspaper message did not travel entirely by radio.

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What the sources leave uncertain

Contemporary and later sources use “commercial,” “regular,” and “public” somewhat differently. A 1908 Marconi-company history describes October 17 as the start of a limited press-message service and dates ordinary messages to February 3, 1908; Parks Canada describes October 17 as the official opening for public use.
“Glace Bay station” can cause location confusion. The 1907 installation was the expanded Marconi Towers site toward Port Morien, south of Glace Bay, rather than Marconi’s original Table Head installation.
The opening did not establish the first transatlantic radio signal or first two-way experiment; those milestones preceded the commercial press service.

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December 18, 1908

Poliovirus

Three surnames are routinely attached to this milestone. The original team had two, and it announced the result in December 1908.

Wrong year, wrong roster

The listing dates the first isolation of poliovirus to 1909 and credits Karl Landsteiner, Constantin Levaditi and Erwin Popper. The presentation it describes was made on 18 December 1908, and Levaditi was not part of it.

On that date Landsteiner reported to Vienna's Imperial and Royal Society of Physicians that he and Popper had experimentally transmitted human poliomyelitis to monkeys.

The detailed Landsteiner–Popper paper appeared in a 1909 journal volume, which is why chronologies alternate between the two years.

Two animals and a nine-year-old boy

They inoculated a rhesus monkey and a baboon with a spinal-cord suspension obtained from a nine-year-old boy who had died after four days of severe poliomyelitis.

Both animals developed characteristic nervous-system lesions, and the rhesus monkey developed complete flaccid paralysis of both legs. With no bacterium identified, the work supported classifying the agent as a filterable virus.

The pair could not transmit the agent serially from monkey to monkey; serial passage was achieved in 1909 by several teams independently, including Landsteiner working with Levaditi.

"Isolate" is the wrong verb

Calling this an isolation is anachronistic if isolation means purification or cultivation. The experiment demonstrated a transmissible, filterable agent; successful growth in human tissue culture came in 1949.

The original work also revealed nothing about poliovirus serotypes. The three immunological types were identified in 1949, four decades later.

Michael Underwood supplied the first recognised clinical description in 1789, and formal recognition of the condition is generally credited to Jakob Heine in 1840.

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Date disputed. Sources disagree; the research places it at 1908-12-18.

What the sources leave uncertain

The discovery was presented on December 18, 1908; the full Landsteiner–Popper paper was published in a 1909 journal volume. Sources consequently alternate between 1908 and 1909.
The listed title merges two stages of research: the original Landsteiner–Popper transmission experiment and Landsteiner–Levaditi’s later serial-passage work.
Calling this an “isolation” is anachronistic if understood as purification or cultivation. The experiment demonstrated a transmissible, filterable agent; successful growth in human tissue culture came in 1949.